cendol

Nma s	Singkong	Jagung	Beras	Kentang	Lengkuas	Kunyit	Jahe
D	M	A	m	S	M	M	M
S	A	P	S	A	S	S	S
K	D	M	Liliopsida	D	L	L	L
O	Euphorbiales	Poales	P	Solanales	Zingiberales	Z	Z
F	Euphorbiaceae	Poaceae	P	Solanaceae	Z	Z	Z
G	Manihot	Zea	Orizae	Solanum	Alpinia	Curcuma	Zingiber
S	M.utilissima	Zea Mays L.	O sativa L	S tuberosum	A officinanum	C domestica	Z officinale

Nma s	Pandan	Sirih	Kumis kucing	Jambu biji	Ketumbar	Cabe	Kopi
D	M	M	M	S	M	M	S
S	S	S	S	A	S	S	A
K	L	Magnoliopsida	M	M	M	M	D
O	Pandanales	Piperales	lamiales	Myratales	Apiales	Solanales	Rubiales
F	P	Piperaceae	Lamiaceae	Myrataceae	A	S	R
G	Pandanus	Piper	Orthosiphon	Psidium	Coriandrum	Capsicum	Coffea
S	P amaryllis folicus roxb	Piper betle	O stamineus benth	P guajavavalin	C sativum L	C annum L	Coffea arabica

Nma s	Pala	Kayu manis	Kulit buah delima	Melati	Meniran	Pegagan
D	M	M	M	M	M	S
S	S	S	S	S	S	A
K	M	M	M	M	M	D
O	Mrysticales	Laurales	Myrtales	Oleales	Malphighiales	Apiales
F	M	L	M	O	Phylanthaceae	Mackinlayaceae
G	Mrystica	Cinnamomum	Punica	Jasminum	Phylantus	Cantella
S	M Fragrans	C verum	P Granatum	J Sambac	P niruril	C asiatica

tatanama tnaman asal...
Nama simplisia A....A.....(BSA SMUA)
(L.) = LINNEUS

tanaman asal A.... A....
nama daerah
penggunaan



1.an0m0sitik
3sel ttgga satu sma laen sulit d.bedakan.,

2.anisositik
3sel ttgga dan slah satux kecil

3.diastik
2 sel ttgga bdang prsktuan menyilang

4.parasitik
2sel

5.actinositic


ciri2 pati :

• meiliki hilum dan lamela
• khasiat untuk bahan penolong sediaan obat, zat tambahan
• contoh:

1. amylum solani, patikentang, solanum tuberosum
2. amylum manihot, pati singkong, Manihot Utilissima,
   
3. amylum maydis, pati jagung, zea mays
4. amylum oryza, pati beras, oryza sativa

ciri2 folium:

• epidermis atas
• rambut penutup
• epidermis dengan mesofil bagian atas
• mesofil bagian bawah
• hablur oksalat

• contoh:

1. psidii folium, jambu klutuk, jambu biji, Psidium Guajava L anti diare
2. orthosiponis folium daun kumis kucing orthosiphon aristatus (BI) diuretik
3. piperis folium daun sirih piper betle L anti sariawan a. batuk, adstigen antispetik
   

ciri2 Rhizoma :

• periderm
• butir pati
• rambut penutup
• jar parenkim berisi butir pati
• pembulu kayu
• parenkim dengan sel sekresi
• jaringan gabus
  
• contoh:

1. zingiberis rhizoma, rimpang jahe, zingiber officinale rose, karminatif
2. curcumae domesticae Rhizoma rimpang kunyit curcuma domestica val, kholagogum
3. languatis rhizoma rimpang lengkuas languas galanga karminatif, anti fungi
   
4. curcumae rhizoma rimpang temulawak curcuma xanthorriza roxb + eks empedu
   

ciri2 cortex :

• parenkim , ada sel minyak dan lendir
• sel batu
• serabut sklerenkim
• periderma sebagian selnya membatu
• hablur kalsium oksalat
• contoh:

1. Granati pericarpium, k.buah delima Punica granatum L astringen, obat cacing
2. burmanni cortex, k. kayu manis cinnamomum burmanni Ness ex BL karminatif

ciri2 buah:

• sel endokarp berdinding tebal yg menyerupai sel batu
• fragmen endokarp terlihat tangensial
• pembuluh kayu bernoktah, dengan penebalan tangga dan spinal
• hipodermis(cabe)
• hablur kalsium oksalat (ketumbar)
• contoh:

1. capsici fructus, buah cabe, capsicum annum L, stomakikum
2. coriandri fructus buah ketumbar coriandrum sativum L karminatif, spamolitik

ciri2 biji:

• perisperm dengan sel minyak( terdiri dari parenkim ) (2)
  
• endosperm dengan butir pati
• butir pati
• sel parenkim
• sel batu( kopi)
• contoh:

1. myristicae semen, biji pala, myristica fragrans (H) karminatif , penenang
2. penawar racun, biji kopi, coffea robusta L p.racun , diuretik,antipiertik

ciri2 herba:

• hablur kalsium oksalat
• epidermis dengan stomata
• rambut penutup
• serabut sklerenkum
• epidermis atas dengan mesofil
• pembulu kayu
• epidermis dengan dinding samping bergelombang(menir)
• Fragmen kulit buah
• fragment mesofil
• contoh:
  

1. phyillanthi herba, herba meniran, phyllanthus niruri L diuretik
   
2. centellae herba, herba pegagan, centellae asiatica (L) diuretik
   

penggolongan obat

Untuk menjaga keamanan pengunaan obat oleh masyarakat, maka pemerintah menggolongkan obat menjadi beberapa bagian :

a. Obat Bebas

Definisi Obat bebas adalah obat yang dapat dibeli tanpa resep dokter. Pada kemasan ditandai dengan lingkaran hitam, mengelilingi bulatan berwarna hijau yang dapat dilihat dengan lebih jelas pada Gambar 1.

Isi dalam kemasan obat disertakan brosur yang berisi nama obat, nama dan isi zat berkhasiat, indikasi, dosis dan aturan pakai, nomor batch, nomor registrasi, nama dan alamat pabrik, serta cara penyimpanannya. Contoh obat bebas : Paracetamol, Mylanta, Oralit, Curcuma plus, dll.

b. Obat Bebas Terbatas

Definisi Obat bebas terbatas yaitu obat yang digunakan untuk mengobati penyakit ringan yang dapat dikenali oleh penderita sendiri.

Definisi Obat bebas terbatas termasuk obat keras dimana pada setiap takaran yang digunakan diberi batas dan pada kemasan ditandai dengan lingkaran hitam mengelilingi bulatan berwarna biru.

Serta sesuai dengan Surat Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan No. 6355/Dirjen/SK/69 tanggal 5 November 1975 ada tanda peringatan P. No 1 sampai P. No 6 dan harus ditandai dengan etiket atau brosur yang menyebutkan nama obat yang bersangkutan, daftar bahan berkhasiat serta jumlah yang digunakan, nomor batch, tanggal kadaluarsa, nomor registrasi, nama dan alamat produsen, petunjuk penggunaan, indikasi, cara pemakaian, peringatan serta kontra indikasi.

Contoh obat bebas terbatas antara lain Promag, Dulcolax, Methicol dll.

c. Obat Keras

Obat keras adalah obat yang hanya boleh diserahkan dengan resep dokter, dimana pada bungkus luarnya diberi tanda bulatan dengan lingkaran hitam dengan dasar merah yang didalamnya terdapat huruf “K” yang menyentuh garis tepi.

Tanda dapat dilihat pada Gambar 4. Obat yang masuk ke dalam golongan obat keras ini adalah obat yang dibungkus sedemikian rupa yang digunakan secara parenteral, baik dengan cara suntikan maupun dengan cara pemakaian lain dengan jalan merobek jaringan, obat baru yang belum tercantum dalam kompendial/farmakope terbaru yang berlaku di Indonesia serta obat-obat yang ditetapkan sebagai obat keras melalui keputusan Menkes RI.

d. Obat Narkotika dan Psikotropika

Definisi menurut Undang-Undang Nomor 35 tahun 2009 tentang Narkotika, Narkotika adalah zat atau obat yang berasal dari tanaman atau bukan tanaman baik sintetis maupun semi sintetis yang dapat menyebabkan penurunan atau perubahan kesadaran, hilangnya rasa, mengurangi sampai menghilangkan rasa nyeri, dan dapat menimbulkan ketergantungan, yang dibedakan ke dalam golongan-golongan.

Contoh obat narkotik yaitu Morphin, Codein, Etilmorfin. dsb.

Definisi Psikotropika adalah zat atau obat, baik alamiah maupun sintetis bukan narkotika yang berkhasiat psikoaktif melalui pengaruh selektif pada susunan saraf pusat yang menyebabkan perubahan khas pada aktivitas mental dan perilaku.

Contoh obat psikotropika yaitu Diazepam, Alprazolam, Phenobarbital, dsb.

Psikotropika termasuk dalam golongan obat keras, sehingga dalam kemasannya memiliki tanda yang sama dengan obat keras. Sedangkan obat narkotika memiliki tanda berupa lambang medali berwarna merah.

The Council for Responsible Nutrition has an executive summary published which is available in an Adobe PDF ® format. The following table is modified and condensed from that summary.

Vitamin Levels for Safe Supplementation Nutrient Function RDA* NOAEL LOAEL
Vitamin A Promotes growth and repair of body tissues, bone formation and healthy skin and hair. Essential for night vision. 2,600 IU (800 µg Retinol Equivalents) 10,000 IU (3,000 µg Retinol Equivalents)(with renal disease this level is less) 21,600 IU (6,500 µg Retinol Equivalents)
Beta-carotene Serves as an antioxidant and may help protect against certain cancers, cataracts and heart disease. Converted to vitamin A in the body. None established 25 mg None established
Vitamin D Aids in the absorption of calcium and helps to build bone mass and prevent bone loss. Helps maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorous. none established 800 IU (20 µg) 2, 000 IU (50 µg)
Vitamin E Helps protect cells from free radical injury. Serves as an antioxidant and may help protect against heart disease, cataracts, and certain cancers. Needed for normal growth and development. 12 IU (8 mg a- Tocopherol Equivalents 1,200 IU (800 mg a- Tocopherol Equivalents) None established
Vitamin K
(phylloquinone) Needed for normal blood clotting and bone health. .065 mg 30 mg (as long as not taking anticoagulant drugs, e.g. Coumadin ®) None established
Vitamin C Promotes healthy cell development, wound healing, and resistance to infections. Serves as an antioxidant and may help protect against certain cancers, cataracts, and heart disease. May reduce heavy menstruation. 60 mg More than 1,000 mg (perhaps as high as 10,000 mg but note that some individuals get diarrhea and gastritis with gastrointestinal bleeding at levels of a 1,000 mg or more -FRJ) None established
Thiamin (B1) Essential for converting carbohydrates to energy. Needed for normal functioning of the nervous system and muscles, including the heart muscle. None established 50 mg None established
Riboflavin (B2) Helps in red blood cell formation, nervous system functioning, and release of energy from foods. Needed for vision and may help protect against cataracts. 400 mg/d may help prevent migraine headaches. None established 200 mg None established
Nicotinic Acid Promotes release of energy from foods and proper nervous system functioning. High intakes can lower elevated cholesterol. None established 500 mg
(250 mg slow release ) 1,000 mg
(500 mg slow release)
Nicotinamide Promotes release of energy from foods and proper nervous system functioning. None established 1,500 mg 3,000 mg
Pyridoxine (B6) Essential for protein metabolism, nervous system, and immune function. Involved in synthesis of hormones and red blood cells. None established 200 mg 500 mg
Folic Acid Needed for normal growth and development and red blood cell formation. Reduces risk of neural tube birth defects. May reduce risk of heart disease and cervical dysplasia. None established 1,000 µg (1 mg) None established
Vitamin B12 Vital for blood formation and healthy nervous system. None established 3,000 µg None established
Biotin Assists in the metabolism of fatty acids and utilization of B-vitamins. None established 2,500 µg None established
Pantothenic Acid Aids in normal growth and development. None established 1,000 mg None established

NOAEL - no observed adverse effects level
LOAEL - lowest observed adverse effect level
* RDA - recommended daily allowance from Nutrition Health Reports
What is a safe level of vitamin A supplementation?

As you can see from the table above 10,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A is considered safe by the Council for Responsible Nutrition but I would give some caution. As little as 12,000 IU has caused hypervitaminosis A (permanent liver damage) in individuals with kidney impairment (1). Also, remember that beta-carotene may be converted to vitamin A in the body so if you are taking a beta-carotene supplement, you should cut down your amount of vitamin A. Finally, remember that a couple of carrots, several ounces of beef liver, or any fish oil supplements can raise your vitamin A intake by as much as 5,000 IU per day. I think if I were taking vitamin A supplements, I would stay down at least at 5000 IU per day and no more.


What are safe levels of mineral supplements?

The Council for Responsible Nutrition has also addressed safe levels of minerals in their executive summary published in an Adobe PDF ® format. The following table is condensed from that summary.

Mineral Levels for Safe Supplementation Nutrient Function NOAEL LOAEL
Calcium Essential for developing and maintaining healthy bones and teeth. Assists in blood clotting, muscle con-traction and nerve transmission. Reduces risk of osteoporosis and may also reduce the risk of preeclampsia in pregnant women. Reduces PMS symptoms. None established 1500 mg More than 2,500 mg
Phosphorus Works with calcium to develop and maintain strong bones and teeth. Enhances use of other nutrients. Essential for energy metabolism, DNA structure, and cell membranes. None established 1500 mg More than 2,500 mg
Magnesium Activates nearly 100 enzymes and helps nerves and muscles function. Also reduces PMS symptoms None established 700 mg None established
Copper Involved in iron metabolism, nervous system functioning, bone health, and synthesis of proteins. Plays a role in the pigmentation of skin, hair, and eyes. 1.5 - 3 mg 9 mg None established
Chromium (III) Aids in glucose metabolism and may help diabetics regulate blood sugar and insulin levels. 50 - 200 µg 1,000 µg None established
Iodine Part of the thyroid hormone. Helps regulate growth, development and energy metabolism. 150 µg 1,000 µg None established
Iron Necessary for red blood cell formation and function. Amount needed is higher in women of childbearing age. 15 mg (elemental iron) 65 mg (elemental iron) 100 mg (elemental iron)
Manganese Necessary for the normal development of the skeletal and connective tissues. Involved in metabolism of carbohydrates. None established 10 mg None established
Molybdenum Needed for metabolism of DNA and RNA, and production of uric acid. 75 - 250 µg 350 µg None established
Selenium Essential component of a key antioxidant enzyme. Necessary for normal growth and development and for use of iodine in thyroid function. May reduce risk of certain cancers. 55 µg 200 µg 910 µg
Zinc Essential part of more than 100 enzymes involved in digestion, metabolism, reproduction, and wound healing. 12 mg 30 mg 60 mg



Do you have recommendations for what vitamin and mineral supplements an adult woman should reasonably take?

The recommended daily allowances for vitamins and minerals would be a reasonable amount of supplementation for a healthy adult woman eating a well balanced diet. Sometimes supplementations above the recommended daily requirements help alleviate certain health problems.

premenstrual syndrome - vitamin B6 magnesium oxalate 200 mg/day. calcium 1000 mg/day
menstrual cramps -magnesium oxalate 600 mg/day
heavy menses - vitamin C 500 mg/day, iron 65 mg/day, vitamin K 30 mg/day
migraine headaches - vitamin B2 400 mg/day
cervical dysplasia - folic acid 0.4 mg/day, copper 5 mg/day
osteoporosis prevention - calcium 1000 mg/day, vitamin D 400 IU/day

The Council for Responsible Nutrition has an executive summary published which is available in an Adobe PDF ® format. The following table is modified and condensed from that summary.

Vitamin Levels for Safe Supplementation Nutrient Function RDA* NOAEL LOAEL
Vitamin A Promotes growth and repair of body tissues, bone formation and healthy skin and hair. Essential for night vision. 2,600 IU (800 µg Retinol Equivalents) 10,000 IU (3,000 µg Retinol Equivalents)(with renal disease this level is less) 21,600 IU (6,500 µg Retinol Equivalents)
Beta-carotene Serves as an antioxidant and may help protect against certain cancers, cataracts and heart disease. Converted to vitamin A in the body. None established 25 mg None established
Vitamin D Aids in the absorption of calcium and helps to build bone mass and prevent bone loss. Helps maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorous. none established 800 IU (20 µg) 2, 000 IU (50 µg)
Vitamin E Helps protect cells from free radical injury. Serves as an antioxidant and may help protect against heart disease, cataracts, and certain cancers. Needed for normal growth and development. 12 IU (8 mg a- Tocopherol Equivalents 1,200 IU (800 mg a- Tocopherol Equivalents) None established
Vitamin K
(phylloquinone) Needed for normal blood clotting and bone health. .065 mg 30 mg (as long as not taking anticoagulant drugs, e.g. Coumadin ®) None established
Vitamin C Promotes healthy cell development, wound healing, and resistance to infections. Serves as an antioxidant and may help protect against certain cancers, cataracts, and heart disease. May reduce heavy menstruation. 60 mg More than 1,000 mg (perhaps as high as 10,000 mg but note that some individuals get diarrhea and gastritis with gastrointestinal bleeding at levels of a 1,000 mg or more -FRJ) None established
Thiamin (B1) Essential for converting carbohydrates to energy. Needed for normal functioning of the nervous system and muscles, including the heart muscle. None established 50 mg None established
Riboflavin (B2) Helps in red blood cell formation, nervous system functioning, and release of energy from foods. Needed for vision and may help protect against cataracts. 400 mg/d may help prevent migraine headaches. None established 200 mg None established
Nicotinic Acid Promotes release of energy from foods and proper nervous system functioning. High intakes can lower elevated cholesterol. None established 500 mg
(250 mg slow release ) 1,000 mg
(500 mg slow release)
Nicotinamide Promotes release of energy from foods and proper nervous system functioning. None established 1,500 mg 3,000 mg
Pyridoxine (B6) Essential for protein metabolism, nervous system, and immune function. Involved in synthesis of hormones and red blood cells. None established 200 mg 500 mg
Folic Acid Needed for normal growth and development and red blood cell formation. Reduces risk of neural tube birth defects. May reduce risk of heart disease and cervical dysplasia. None established 1,000 µg (1 mg) None established
Vitamin B12 Vital for blood formation and healthy nervous system. None established 3,000 µg None established
Biotin Assists in the metabolism of fatty acids and utilization of B-vitamins. None established 2,500 µg None established
Pantothenic Acid Aids in normal growth and development. None established 1,000 mg None established

NOAEL - no observed adverse effects level
LOAEL - lowest observed adverse effect level
* RDA - recommended daily allowance from Nutrition Health Reports
What is a safe level of vitamin A supplementation?

As you can see from the table above 10,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A is considered safe by the Council for Responsible Nutrition but I would give some caution. As little as 12,000 IU has caused hypervitaminosis A (permanent liver damage) in individuals with kidney impairment (1). Also, remember that beta-carotene may be converted to vitamin A in the body so if you are taking a beta-carotene supplement, you should cut down your amount of vitamin A. Finally, remember that a couple of carrots, several ounces of beef liver, or any fish oil supplements can raise your vitamin A intake by as much as 5,000 IU per day. I think if I were taking vitamin A supplements, I would stay down at least at 5000 IU per day and no more.


What are safe levels of mineral supplements?

The Council for Responsible Nutrition has also addressed safe levels of minerals in their executive summary published in an Adobe PDF ® format. The following table is condensed from that summary.

Mineral Levels for Safe Supplementation Nutrient Function NOAEL LOAEL
Calcium Essential for developing and maintaining healthy bones and teeth. Assists in blood clotting, muscle con-traction and nerve transmission. Reduces risk of osteoporosis and may also reduce the risk of preeclampsia in pregnant women. Reduces PMS symptoms. None established 1500 mg More than 2,500 mg
Phosphorus Works with calcium to develop and maintain strong bones and teeth. Enhances use of other nutrients. Essential for energy metabolism, DNA structure, and cell membranes. None established 1500 mg More than 2,500 mg
Magnesium Activates nearly 100 enzymes and helps nerves and muscles function. Also reduces PMS symptoms None established 700 mg None established
Copper Involved in iron metabolism, nervous system functioning, bone health, and synthesis of proteins. Plays a role in the pigmentation of skin, hair, and eyes. 1.5 - 3 mg 9 mg None established
Chromium (III) Aids in glucose metabolism and may help diabetics regulate blood sugar and insulin levels. 50 - 200 µg 1,000 µg None established
Iodine Part of the thyroid hormone. Helps regulate growth, development and energy metabolism. 150 µg 1,000 µg None established
Iron Necessary for red blood cell formation and function. Amount needed is higher in women of childbearing age. 15 mg (elemental iron) 65 mg (elemental iron) 100 mg (elemental iron)
Manganese Necessary for the normal development of the skeletal and connective tissues. Involved in metabolism of carbohydrates. None established 10 mg None established
Molybdenum Needed for metabolism of DNA and RNA, and production of uric acid. 75 - 250 µg 350 µg None established
Selenium Essential component of a key antioxidant enzyme. Necessary for normal growth and development and for use of iodine in thyroid function. May reduce risk of certain cancers. 55 µg 200 µg 910 µg
Zinc Essential part of more than 100 enzymes involved in digestion, metabolism, reproduction, and wound healing. 12 mg 30 mg 60 mg



Do you have recommendations for what vitamin and mineral supplements an adult woman should reasonably take?

The recommended daily allowances for vitamins and minerals would be a reasonable amount of supplementation for a healthy adult woman eating a well balanced diet. Sometimes supplementations above the recommended daily requirements help alleviate certain health problems.

premenstrual syndrome - vitamin B6 magnesium oxalate 200 mg/day. calcium 1000 mg/day
menstrual cramps -magnesium oxalate 600 mg/day
heavy menses - vitamin C 500 mg/day, iron 65 mg/day, vitamin K 30 mg/day
migraine headaches - vitamin B2 400 mg/day
cervical dysplasia - folic acid 0.4 mg/day, copper 5 mg/day
osteoporosis prevention - calcium 1000 mg/day, vitamin D 400 IU/day